Prerequisites: Adjectives and adverbs
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This page covers two connected topics: the comparison of adjectives (high, higher, highest) and the formation and comparison of adverbs (highly, more highly, most highly). Both build on the adjective declensions already learned, and adverbs are among the most frequent words in Latin. Complete tables will be in Paradigms: adjectives and pronouns.
An adjective has three degrees:
| Degree | Meaning | Example |
|---|---|---|
| Positive | the basic form | altus high |
| Comparative | more…, rather…, too… | altior higher |
| Superlative | most…, very… | altissimus highest, very high |
stem + -ior (masculine and feminine), -ius (neuter)
The stem is found from the genitive, as for any adjective:
| Positive | Stem | Comparative |
|---|---|---|
| altus, -a, -um | alt- | altior, altius |
| lātus, -a, -um | lāt- | lātior, lātius |
| fortis, -e | fort- | fortior, fortius |
| pulcher, -chra, -chrum | pulchr- | pulchrior, pulchrius |
| ingēns, -entis | ingent- | ingentior, ingentius |
The comparative is declined as a consonant-stem third declension adjective, with two endings (one for masculine and feminine, one for neuter).
| Case | M./F. sing. | Neut. sing. | M./F. pl. | Neut. pl. |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Nominative | altior | altius | altiōrēs | altiōra |
| Genitive | altiōris | altiōris | altiōrum | altiōrum |
| Dative | altiōrī | altiōrī | altiōribus | altiōribus |
| Accusative | altiōrem | altius | altiōrēs | altiōra |
| Ablative | altiōre | altiōre | altiōribus | altiōribus |
| Vocative | altior | altius | altiōrēs | altiōra |
The differences from fortis (an i-stem) are:
Two ways of saying than:
| Construction | Example | Translation |
|---|---|---|
| quam + the same case | Brūtus altior est quam Caesar. | Brutus is taller than Caesar. |
| Ablative of comparison | Brūtus altior est Caesare. | Brutus is taller than Caesar. |
Both examples are constructed. The ablative construction is possible only where quam would be followed by a nominative or an accusative. The ablative of comparison is treated on the page Ablative and locative.
Videō meliōra probōque, dēteriōra sequor.
I see the better and approve it, I follow the worse. (Ovid, Metamorphoses 7.20–21; meliōra and dēteriōra are neuter plural comparatives used as nouns)
Exēgī monumentum aere perennius, rēgālīque sitū pyramidum altius.
I have finished a monument more lasting than bronze and loftier than the royal site of the pyramids. (Horace, Odes 3.30.1–2; perennius and altius are neuter comparatives; aere is the ablative of comparison)
stem + -issimus, -a, -um
The superlative is declined like bonus, -a, -um.
| Positive | Superlative |
|---|---|
| altus | altissimus |
| lātus | lātissimus |
| fortis | fortissimus |
| ingēns | ingentissimus |
Adjectives with a nominative in -er form the superlative by adding -rimus to the nominative:
| Positive | Superlative |
|---|---|
| pulcher | pulcherrimus |
| ācer | ācerrimus |
| miser | miserrimus |
| celer | celerrimus |
| līber | līberrimus |
Six adjectives in -lis take -limus: facilis, facillimus; difficilis, difficillimus; similis, simillimus; dissimilis, dissimillimus; gracilis, gracillimus; humilis, humillimus. Other adjectives in -lis are regular (fortis, fortissimus).
The superlative has two senses:
Hōrum omnium fortissimī sunt Belgae.
Of all these, the Belgae are the bravest. (Caesar, De Bello Gallico 1.1; fortissimī is a superlative, with the genitive of the group)
Apud Helvētiōs longē nōbilissimus fuit et dītissimus Orgetorīx.
Among the Helvetii, Orgetorix was by far the noblest and richest. (Caesar, De Bello Gallico 1.2; longē, by far, strengthens the superlatives)
quam with a superlative means as … as possible: quam celerrimē, as quickly as possible; quam plūrimī, as many as possible.
Adjectives whose stem ends in a vowel before -us (such as idōneus, antīquus, necessārius) do not take the endings. They use the adverbs magis (more) and maximē (most): magis idōneus, maximē idōneus.
| Positive | Comparative | Superlative | Meaning |
|---|---|---|---|
| bonus | melior, melius | optimus | good, better, best |
| malus | peior, peius | pessimus | bad, worse, worst |
| magnus | māior, māius | maximus | great, greater, greatest |
| parvus | minor, minus | minimus | small, smaller, smallest |
| multus | plūs (neuter) | plūrimus | much, more, most |
| vetus | vetustior | veterrimus | old, older, oldest |
Some comparisons come from words for position, and the positive is lacking or rare:
| Comparative | Superlative | Meaning |
|---|---|---|
| prior | prīmus | former, first |
| propior | proximus | nearer, nearest |
| ulterior | ultimus | farther, farthest |
| interior | intimus | inner, innermost |
| superior | suprēmus, summus | higher, highest |
| īnferior | īnfimus, īmus | lower, lowest |
... proximīque sunt Germānīs, quī trans Rhēnum incolunt.
... and they are nearest to the Germans, who live across the Rhine. (Caesar, De Bello Gallico 1.1; proximī is the superlative of propior, with the dative)
In the singular, plūs is a neuter noun that takes the genitive of the whole: plūs pecūniae, more money. In the plural it is an adjective.
| Case | Singular | Plural (M./F.) | Plural (neut.) |
|---|---|---|---|
| Nominative | plūs | plūrēs | plūra |
| Genitive | plūris | plūrium | plūrium |
| Dative | plūribus | plūribus | |
| Accusative | plūs | plūrēs | plūra |
| Ablative | plūre | plūribus | plūribus |
An adverb is an invariable word that modifies a verb, an adjective or another adverb. Most Latin adverbs are formed from adjectives, and the others are independent words.
| Adjective class | Rule | Examples |
|---|---|---|
| 1st/2nd declension | stem + -ē (long) | altus → altē; lātus → lātē; pulcher → pulchrē; miser → miserē |
| 3rd declension | stem + -iter | fortis → fortiter; ācer → ācriter; celer → celeriter; fēlix → fēlīciter |
| 3rd declension, stem in -nt- | stem + -er | prūdēns → prūdenter; sapiēns → sapienter |
Irregular adverbs from adjectives: bonus → bene; malus → male (both with a short e); facilis → facile.
Multum ille et terrīs iactātus et altō.
He was much tossed on land and sea. (Vergil, Aeneid 1.3)
| Type | Examples |
|---|---|
| Place | hīc here, ibi there, illīc yonder, ubi where; hūc hither, eō thither, quō whither; hinc hence, inde thence, unde whence |
| Time | nunc now, tum then, iam already, mox soon, ōlim once, semper always, numquam never, saepe often, semel once, tandem at last |
| Manner | ita and sīc so, thus; vix hardly; fortasse perhaps |
| Degree | satis enough, nimis too much, paene almost, tam so, quam how, as |
| Negation, affirmation | nōn not, nē lest, etiam even, also, quoque also |
Varium et mūtābile semper fēmina.
Woman is ever a fickle and changeable thing. (Vergil, Aeneid 4.569–570)
Forsan et haec ōlim meminisse iuvābit.
Perhaps one day it will be pleasing to remember even this. (Vergil, Aeneid 1.203)
Nōbīs cum semel occidit brevis lūx ...
When once our brief light has set ... (Catullus 5.5)
An adverb normally stands before the word it modifies (bene scrībit). A word moved away from its usual position is emphatic.
Comparative adverb = the neuter accusative singular of the comparative adjective. Superlative adverb = the superlative adjective with -ē in place of -us.
| Positive | Comparative | Superlative | Meaning |
|---|---|---|---|
| altē | altius | altissimē | highly |
| lātē | lātius | lātissimē | widely |
| fortiter | fortius | fortissimē | bravely |
| celeriter | celerius | celerrimē | quickly |
| facile | facilius | facillimē | easily |
| saepe | saepius | saepissimē | often |
| diū | diūtius | diūtissimē | for a long time |
| prope | propius | proximē | near |
Irregular comparison of adverbs:
| Positive | Comparative | Superlative | Meaning |
|---|---|---|---|
| bene | melius | optimē | well |
| male | peius | pessimē | badly |
| magnopere | magis | maximē | greatly |
| parum | minus | minimē | little |
| multum | plūs | plūrimum | much |
... ā cultū atque hūmānitāte prōvinciae longissimē absunt.
... they are farthest from the culture and civilisation of the Province. (Caesar, De Bello Gallico 1.1; longissimē is a superlative adverb)
Give the case, number and gender, and the dictionary form of the positive.
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