Classical Languages - Latin - Morphology - Invariable Words

Invariable Words
Prepositions, Conjunctions, Particles

Invariable Words

Prerequisites: Uses of the cases, Comparison and adverbs

Next: Syntax

Not every Latin word is inflected. Adverbs, prepositions, conjunctions, particles and interjections never change their form. Adverbs were treated on the page Comparison and adverbs. This page gathers the rest. These words are short and extremely frequent, and they carry much of the structure of a sentence: the prepositions govern the cases, the conjunctions link words and clauses, and the particles mark questions, negation and emphasis. This is the last page of Morphology, and the reference tables here support the Syntax pages that follow.

Prepositions

A preposition stands before a noun or pronoun and governs it in the accusative or the ablative. The case is fixed for each preposition, except for four that take both with a difference in meaning. The prepositions already appeared on the page Uses of the cases. Here is the fuller list.

With the accusative

Preposition Meaning Example
ad to, towards, near ad urbem
adversus against, facing adversus hostēs
ante before (place or time) ante portam, ante bellum
apud at, among, in the house of apud Helvētiōs
circā, circum around circum urbem
circiter about (of time, number) circiter mīlle
citrā, cis on this side of citrā flūmen
contrā against, opposite contrā hostēs
ergā towards (of attitude) ergā patrem
extrā outside extrā mūrōs
infrā below infrā terram
inter between, among inter sē
intrā within intrā mūrōs
iuxtā next to iuxtā viam
ob on account of ob eam rem
penes in the power of penes cōnsulem
per through, throughout, by means of per agrōs
pōne behind pōne castra
post after, behind post bellum
praeter beyond, except praeter spem
prope near prope urbem
propter because of propter metum
secundum along, according to secundum flūmen
suprā above suprā caput
trans across trans Rhēnum
ultrā beyond ultrā montēs
versus towards (follows its noun) Rōmam versus

With the ablative

Preposition Meaning Example
ā, ab from, by ab urbe, ā Caesare
cōram in the presence of cōram populō
cum with cum amīcīs
dē down from, about, concerning dē monte, dē bellō
ē, ex out of, from ex urbe
prae in front of, because of prae metū
prō for, in front of, in place of prō patriā
sine without sine amīcīs

With both cases

Preposition With the accusative (motion) With the ablative (rest)
in into, onto, against: in urbem in, on: in urbe
sub to a place under, towards (of time): sub mūrum under: sub mūrō
super above, over: super flūmen concerning (poetic): super bellō
subter to a place beneath beneath

Examples

Gallia est omnis dīvīsa in partēs trēs.

All Gaul is divided into three parts. (Caesar, De Bello Gallico 1.1)

Apud Helvētiōs longē nōbilissimus fuit Orgetorīx.

Among the Helvetii, Orgetorix was by far the noblest. (Caesar, De Bello Gallico 1.2)

Hī omnēs linguā, institūtīs, lēgibus inter sē differunt.

These all differ among themselves in language, customs and laws. (Caesar, De Bello Gallico 1.1)

Dulce et decōrum est prō patriā morī.

It is sweet and fitting to die for one's country. (Horace, Odes 3.2.13)

Ecce autem gemini ā Tenedō tranquilla per alta ...

And look, twin serpents from Tenedos over the calm deep ... (Vergil, Aeneid 2.203; ecce is an interjection, autem stands second, per takes the accusative)

Notes on prepositions

  1. Position. A preposition stands before its noun, except:
    • cum with the personal, reflexive and relative pronouns, attached after the pronoun: mēcum, tēcum, sēcum, nōbīscum, vōbīscum, quōcum;
    • causā and grātiā (nouns in the ablative used as prepositions), which follow the genitive: honōris causā;
    • versus and tenus, which follow their noun;
    • a preposition sometimes follows its relative pronoun: quam ob rem, for which reason.
  2. Place names. Names of towns and small islands, domus and rūs are used without a preposition for to and from: Rōmam, Rōmā.
  3. Agent and instrument. The agent of a passive takes ā or ab (ā Caesare); an instrument takes the ablative alone (gladiō).
  4. Prepositions as prefixes. The same words appear as prefixes of verbs, often with sound changes: ad- becomes ac- in accēdō; in- becomes im- in impōnō.
  5. Prepositions without a noun are adverbs: ante, post, prope can stand alone, meaning before, afterwards, nearby.

Conjunctions

A conjunction joins words, phrases or clauses. Coordinating conjunctions join items of equal rank; subordinating conjunctions introduce a clause that depends on another.

Coordinating conjunctions

Type Conjunctions Meaning
Copulative (and) et, -que, atque, ac and
neque, nec and not, nor
etiam, quoque also, even
Adversative (but) sed, vērum, at, atquī but
autem but, on the other hand
tamen nevertheless
Disjunctive (or) aut, vel, -ve or
sīve, seu or if
Causal (for) nam, namque, enim for
Inferential (therefore) itaque, igitur, ergō and so, therefore

Notes on the coordinating conjunctions

  1. -que is attached to the second word of the pair: senātus populusque, Arma virumque canō.

  2. atque may stand before a vowel or a consonant; ac is used only before a consonant. neque may stand before either; nec is normally used before a consonant.

  3. autem, enim, igitur, quidem, vērō never stand first in a clause; they stand second (postpositives). quoque follows the word it emphasises.

  4. Asyndeton is the absence of a conjunction, common in lists: linguā, institūtīs, lēgibus.

  5. Correlative pairs:

    Pair Meaning
    et ... et both ... and
    neque ... neque neither ... nor
    aut ... aut either ... or (exclusive)
    vel ... vel either ... or (a choice)
    cum ... tum not only ... but also
    nōn sōlum ... sed etiam not only ... but also

Examples

Ōdī et amō.

I hate and I love. (Catullus 85.1)

Nōn scholae, sed vītae discimus.

We learn not for school but for life.

Multum ille et terrīs iactātus et altō.

He was much tossed on land and sea. (Vergil, Aeneid 1.3; et ... et)

Subordinating conjunctions

Type Conjunctions Meaning
Temporal cum, ubi, ut when
postquam after
antequam, priusquam before
dum, dōnec while, until
simul ac as soon as
Causal quod, quia, quoniam because
cum since
Concessive quamquam, quamvīs, etsī, cum although
Conditional sī if
nisi, nī if not, unless
sīn but if
Purpose ut, nē, quō so that, so that not
Result ut, ut nōn so that, so that not
Comparison ut, sīcut, velut, quasi, quam as, as if, than

The mood of the verb in the subordinate clause depends on the conjunction and on the meaning. Some take the indicative, some the subjunctive, and cum takes either. These constructions are treated in the section on Subordinate clauses.

Sī valēs, bene est; ego valeō.

If you are well, that is good; I am well. (sī, conditional)

... proptereā quod ā cultū atque hūmānitāte prōvinciae longissimē absunt.

... because they are farthest from the culture and civilisation of the Province. (Caesar, De Bello Gallico 1.1; proptereā quod, causal)

Nōbīs cum semel occidit brevis lūx, nox est perpetua ūna dormienda.

When once our brief light has set, there is one perpetual night to be slept. (Catullus 5.5–6; cum, temporal)

Particles

Particles are small words that mark the type of a sentence or add emphasis. Many have already appeared in this section.

Interrogative particles

Particle Use Example
-ne attached to the first word, asks a yes/no question Amatne Brūtus Caesarem?
nōnne expects the answer yes Nōnne vidētis?
num expects the answer no Num dubitās?
utrum ... an double question: whether ... or Utrum vīvit an mortuus est?

The examples are constructed. Num also introduces indirect questions, as the section on subordinate clauses explains.

Negative particles

Particle Use
nōn negates a statement
nē negates a command, a wish or a purpose
haud not at all (with adjectives and adverbs)
nec, neque and not
nēmō, nihil, numquam nobody, nothing, never

Affirmative and emphatic particles

Particle Meaning
vērō, certē, profectō truly, certainly
quidem indeed, at least (postpositive)
enim for, indeed (postpositive)
nempe of course, namely
-met, -pte enclitic emphasis: egomet, suāpte

Interjections

Interjection Use Example
ō O (address, wonder) Ō tempora, ō mōrēs!
heu, ēheu alas Heu pietās, heu prīsca fidēs!
vae woe (with the dative) Vae victīs!
ecce, en behold, look Ecce autem gemini ...
euge bravo

The line Heu pietās, heu prīsca fidēs (Alas for piety, alas for ancient faith) is from Vergil, Aeneid 6.878.

Summary

Class Examples Chief use
Prepositions ad, ab, cum, in, per, prō, sine, trans govern the accusative or ablative
Coordinating conjunctions et, -que, atque, sed, aut, nam, igitur join equals
Subordinating conjunctions cum, quod, sī, ut, dum, quamquam introduce dependent clauses
Interrogative particles -ne, nōnne, num mark questions
Negative particles nōn, nē, haud negate
Emphatic particles quidem, vērō, -met emphasise
Interjections ō, heu, vae, ecce express emotion

Common pitfalls

  • Giving a preposition the wrong case. ad always takes the accusative, ab always the ablative.
  • Confusing in with the accusative and the ablative. Motion takes the accusative, rest the ablative.
  • Writing cum mē. Use mēcum.
  • Using a preposition with a town name. Rōmam, not ad Rōmam.
  • Putting autem or enim first in the clause. They stand second.
  • Putting -que on the wrong word. It is attached to the second member.
  • Using ac before a vowel. Use atque.
  • Treating cum as always meaning with. It can be a conjunction (when, since, although).
  • Confusing quod (because) with the relative pronoun quod. The sense decides.
  • Forgetting that two negatives cancel out. nōn nēmō means somebody.

Self-test

  1. Which preposition takes the accusative: ab, ad, cum, prō, per, sine?
  2. What is the difference between in urbem and in urbe?
  3. How do you say with me, with you (sing.), with us?
  4. Name three conjunctions that mean and, and say how -que differs from et in position.
  5. Where do autem and enim stand in a clause?
  6. What does nōnne expect, and what does num expect?
  7. Translate: Brūtus et Caesar amīcī sunt. Nōn sōlum sapiēns, sed etiam fortis est. Aut vincēmus aut moriēmur.
  8. What are the three meanings of cum as a conjunction?
  9. Which interjection takes the dative, and with what meaning?

Answers

  1. ad and per take the accusative; the others take the ablative.
  2. in urbem: into the city (motion, accusative); in urbe: in the city (rest, ablative).
  3. mēcum, tēcum, nōbīscum.
  4. et, atque or ac, and -que. et stands before the second word; -que is attached to its end.
  5. Second, after the first word or phrase.
  6. nōnne expects yes; num expects no.
  7. Brutus and Caesar are friends. He is not only wise but also brave. We shall either conquer or die.
  8. When, since (because) and although.
  9. vae, meaning woe to.

Next: Syntax

Go to the top of the page